Splashdown

 ( Spaceflight Concepts ) 

Splashdown is the method of landing a spacecraft or launch vehicle in a body of water, usually by parachute. This has been the primary recovery method of American capsules including NASA's Project Mercury, Project Gemini, Apollo program and Orion along with the private SpaceX Dragon. It is also possible for the Boeing Starliner, Russian Soyuz spacecraft, and the Chinese Shenzhou crewed capsules to land in water in case of contingency. NASA recovered the Space Shuttle solid rocket boosters (SRBs) via splashdown, as is done for Rocket Lab Electron first stage.

As the name suggests, the vehicle into an ocean or other large body of water. Due to its low density and viscosity, water cushions the spacecraft enough that there is no need for a braking rocket to slow the final descent as is the case with Russian and Chinese crewed space capsules or airbags as is the case with the Boeing Starliner.

The American practice came in part because American launch sites are on the coastline and launch primarily over water. Russian launch sites such as Baikonur Cosmodrome are far inland, and most early launch aborts would descend on land.

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History The splashdown method of landing was used for Mercury program, Gemini program and Apollo program (including Skylab, which used Apollo capsules). Soyuz 23 unintentionally landed on a freezing lake with slushy patches of ice during a snowstorm.Archived at Ghostarchive and the target="_blank" rel="nofollow"> Wayback Machine:

On early Mercury flights, a helicopter attached a cable to the capsule, lifted it from the water and delivered it to a nearby ship. This was changed after the sinking of Liberty Bell 7. All later Mercury, Gemini and Apollo capsules had a flotation collar (similar to a rubber life raft) attached to the spacecraft to increase their buoyancy. The spacecraft would then be brought alongside a ship and lifted onto deck by crane.

After the flotation collar is attached, a hatch on the spacecraft is usually opened. At that time, some astronauts decide to be hoisted aboard a helicopter for a ride to the recovery ship and some decided to stay with the spacecraft and be lifted aboard ship via crane. All Gemini and Apollo flights (Apollos 7 to 17) used the former, while Mercury missions from Mercury 6 to Mercury 9, as well as all Skylab missions and Apollo-Soyuz used the latter, especially the Skylab flights as to preserve all medical data. During the Gemini and Apollo programs, NASA used for the astronauts to practice water egress.

Apollo 11 was America's first Moon landing mission and marked the first time that humans walked on the surface of another planetary body. The possibility of the astronauts bringing from the Moon back to Earth was remote, but not ruled out. To contain any possible contaminants at the scene of the splashdown, the astronauts donned special Biological Isolation Garments and the outside of the suits were scrubbed prior to the astronauts being hoisted aboard and escorted safely inside a Mobile Quarantine Facility. Both the SpaceX Dragon 1 and Dragon 2 capsules were designed to use the splashdown method of landing. The original cargo Dragon splashed down in the Pacific Ocean off the coast of Baja California. At the request of NASA, both the crew and cargo variations of the Dragon 2 capsule splash down off the coast of Florida, either in the Atlantic Ocean or the Gulf of Mexico.

The early design concept for Orion (then known as the Crew Exploration Vehicle) featured recovery on land using a combination of parachutes and airbags, although it was also designed to make a contingency splashdown if needed. Due to weight considerations, the airbag design concept was dropped for Orion, and it conducts landings via splashdown in the Pacific Ocean off the coast of California.

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Disadvantages Perhaps the most dangerous aspect is the possibility of the spacecraft flooding and sinking. For example, when the hatch of Gus Grissom's Liberty Bell 7 capsule blew prematurely, the capsule sank and Grissom almost drowned. Since the spacecraft's flooding will occur from a location in its hull where it ruptures first, it is important to determine the location on the hull that experiences the highest loading. This location along the impacting side is determined by the surrounding 'air cushion' layer, which deforms the water surface before the moment of impact, and results in a non-trivial geometry of the liquid surface during first touch-down. Soyuz 23 was dragged under a frozen lake by its parachutes. The crew became incapacitated by carbon dioxide and were rescued after a nine-hour recovery operation.

If the capsule comes down far from any recovery forces, the crew may be stranded at sea for an extended period of time. As an example, Scott Carpenter in Aurora 7 overshot the assigned landing zone by . These recovery operation mishaps can be mitigated by placing several vessels on standby in different locations, but this can be an expensive option.

Exposure to salt water can have adverse effects on vehicles intended for reuse, such as SpaceX Dragon.

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Launch vehicles Some reusable launch vehicles recover components via splashdown. This was first seen with the Space Shuttle SRBs, with STS-1 launching in 1981. Out of 135 launches, NASA recovered all but two sets of SRBs.

SpaceX has conducted propulsive splashdowns of the Falcon 9 first stage, Super Heavy booster, and Starship spacecraft. These vehicles are designed to land on land or modified barges and do not always survive intact after tipping over in the water; SpaceX has mainly conducted propulsive splashdowns for development flights. After the launch of CRS-16, the booster experienced a control issue and splashed down in the ocean instead of making an intended landing at Landing Zone 1.

Rocket Lab intended to catch the first stage of their Electron rocket with a helicopter as it descended under parachute, but abandoned this idea in favor of parachute splashdown. In 2020, Rocket Lab made their first booster recovery.

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List of spacecraft splashdowns

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Crewed spacecraft

1	Freedom 7	NASA	May 5, 1961				Ezell (1988) p. 143
2	Liberty Bell 7	NASA	July 21, 1961				Ezell (1988) p. 144
3	Friendship 7	NASA	February 20, 1962		(USS Randolph**)	74	Ezell, Volume II, p. 145
4	Aurora 7	NASA	May 24, 1962		(**)	400	Ezell, Volume II, p. 146
5	Sigma 7	NASA	October 3, 1962			7.4	Ezell, Volume II, p. 147
6	Faith 7	NASA	May 16, 1963		USS Kearsarge	8.1	Ezell, Volume II, p. 148
7	Gemini 3	NASA	March 23, 1965		USS Intrepid	111	Ezell, Volume II, p. 159
8	Gemini 4	NASA	June 7, 1965			81	Ezell, Volume II, p. 160
9	Gemini 5	NASA	August 29, 1965		USS Lake Champlain	270	Ezell, Volume II, p. 161
10	Gemini 7	NASA	December 18, 1965		USS Wasp	12	Ezell, Volume II, p. 162
11	Gemini 6A	NASA	December 16, 1965		USS Wasp	13	Ezell, Volume II, p. 163
12	Gemini 8	NASA	March 17, 1966		(**)	2	Ezell, Volume II, p. 164
13	Gemini 9A	NASA	June 6, 1966		USS Wasp	0.7	Ezell, Volume II, p. 165
14	Gemini 10	NASA	July 21, 1966			6	Ezell, Volume II, p. 166
15	Gemini 11	NASA	September 15, 1966			5	Ezell, Volume II, p. 167
16	Gemini 12	NASA	November 15, 1966		USS Wasp	5	Ezell, Volume II, p. 168
17	Apollo 7	NASA	October 22, 1968			3	Ezell, Volume II, p. 188
18	Apollo 8	NASA	December 27, 1968			2	Ezell, Volume II, p. 189
19	Apollo 9	NASA	March 13, 1969		USS Guadalcanal	5	Ezell, Volume III, p. 83Orloff, p. 58
20	Apollo 10	NASA	May 26, 1969			2.4	Ezell, Volume III, p. 84Orloff, p. 78
21	Apollo 11	NASA	July 24, 1969			3.13	Ezell, Volume III, p. 85Orloff, p. 98
22	Apollo 12	NASA	November 24, 1969		USS Hornet	3.7	Ezell, Volume III, p. 86Orloff, p. 120
23	Apollo 13	NASA	April 17, 1970			1.85	Ezell, Volume III, p. 87Orloff, p. 143
24	Apollo 14	NASA	February 9, 1971			1.1	Ezell, Volume III, p. 88Orloff, p. 168
25	Apollo 15	NASA	August 7, 1971			1.85	Ezell, Volume III, p. 89Orloff, p. 197
26	Apollo 16	NASA	April 27, 1972			0.55	Ezell, Volume III, p. 91Orloff, p. 225
27	Apollo 17	NASA	December 19, 1972		USS Ticonderoga	1.85	Ezell, Volume III, p. 92Orloff, p. 251
28	Skylab 2	NASA	June 22, 1973		USS Ticonderoga		Ezell, Volume III, p. 104
29	Skylab 3	NASA	September 25, 1973		USS New Orleans		Ezell, Volume III, p. 105
30	Skylab 4	NASA	February 8, 1974		USS New Orleans
31	Apollo CSM-111	NASA	July 24, 1975		USS New Orleans	1.3	Ezell, Volume III, p. 112 "ASTP Apollo Miss Distance", ASTP Summary Science Report - Mission Description p. 36,
32	Soyuz 23	USSR	October 16, 1976	Lake Tengiz	Mi-8 helicopter
33	Crew Dragon Demo-2	SpaceX	August 2, 2020		GO Navigator
33	Crew Dragon Crew-1	SpaceX	May 2, 2021		GO Navigator
34	Inspiration4	SpaceX	September 18, 2021		GO Searcher
35	Crew Dragon Crew-2	SpaceX	November 7, 2021		GO Navigator
35	Axiom Mission 1	SpaceX	April 25, 2022		Megan
36	Crew Dragon Crew-3	SpaceX	May 6, 2022		Shannon
37	Crew Dragon Crew-4	SpaceX	October 14, 2022		Megan
38	Crew Dragon Crew-5	SpaceX	March 11, 2023		Shannon
39	Axiom Mission 2	SpaceX	May 31, 2023		Megan
40	Polaris Dawn	SpaceX	Sep 15, 2024

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Uncrewed spacecraft

Jupiter AM-18 (Able and Baker)	USAF	May 28, 1959	N Antigua Island
Mercury-Big Joe	NASA	September 9, 1959	SE Cape Canaveral
Mercury-Little Joe 2 Sam The Rhesus Monkey	NASA	December 4, 1959	SE Wallops Island, Virginia		? km
Mercury-Redstone 1A	NASA	December 19, 1960	SE Cape Canaveral
Mercury-Redstone 2	NASA	January 31, 1961	SE Cape Canaveral
Mercury-Atlas 2	NASA	February 21, 1961	SE Cape Canaveral	USS Donner
Discoverer 25 (Corona 9017)	USAF	June 16, 1961			mid-air recovery missed
Mercury-Atlas 4	NASA	September 13, 1961	E of Bermuda
Mercury-Atlas 5	NASA	November 29, 1961	SE of Bermuda		? km
Gemini 2	NASA	January 19, 1965	downrange from KSC	USS Lake Champlain	"Gemini 2 Distance traveled, Landing Point, Miss Distance", Manned Space Flight Network Performance Analysis for the GT-2 Mission; Pg V - Distance traveled, Page 21 - Landing Point, Miss Distance, (NASA X-552-65-204)
AS-201	NASA	February 26, 1966	downrange from KSC	USS Boxer	? km
AS-202	NASA	August 25, 1966	southwest of Wake Island	USS Hornet	? km
Gemini 2-MOL	USAF	November 3, 1966	SE KSC near Ascension Island
Apollo 4	NASA	November 9, 1967
Apollo 6	NASA	April 4, 1968		USS Okinawa	? km
Zond 5	USSR	September 21, 1968		USSR recovery naval vessel and	Michael Cassutt (2025). 9781429971720, Tom Doherty Associates. . ISBN 9781429971720 "Zond 5, Landing Point, Miss Distance" , NASA Solar System Exploration - Zond 5, Landing Point, Miss Distance.
Zond 8	USSR	October 27, 1970	SE of the Chagos Archipelago, Indian Ocean	USSR recovery ship	24 km Brian Harvey (2025). 9780387739762, Springer Science & Business Media. . ISBN 9780387739762 "Zond 8, Landing Point" , NASA Solar System Exploration - Zond 8, Splashdown area.
Cosmos 1374	USSR	June 4, 1982	S of Cocos Islands, Indian Ocean	USSR recovery ship	? km
Cosmos 1445	USSR	March 15, 1983	S of Cocos Islands, Indian Ocean	USSR recovery ship	? km
Cosmos 1517	USSR	December 27, 1983	near Crimea, Black Sea	USSR recovery ship	? km
Cosmos 1614	USSR	December 19, 1984	? km W of the Crimea, Black Sea	USSR recovery ship	? km
COTS Demo Flight 1	SpaceX	December 8, 2010	west of Baja California, Mexico, Pacific Ocean	?
Dragon C2+	SpaceX	May 31, 2012		?	?
CRS SpX-1	SpaceX	October 28, 2012	?	American Islander	?
CRS SpX-2	SpaceX	March 27, 2013	?	American Islander	?
Exploration Flight Test 1	NASA	December 5, 2014	, west of Baja California
Crew Dragon Demo-1	SpaceX	March 8, 2019	In the Gulf of Mexico, off the coast of Pensacola, Florida	GO Searcher
SpaceX CRS-21	SpaceX	January 14, 2020	In the Gulf of Mexico, off the coast of Tampa, Florida	GO Navigator
Artemis I	NASA	December 11, 2022	Pacific Ocean, west of Baja California	USS Portland	4 Nautical Miles
IFT-4	SpaceX	June 6, 2024	Indian Ocean
IFT-5	SpaceX	October 13, 2024	Indian Ocean
IFT-6	SpaceX	November 19, 2024	Indian Ocean

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Gallery File:Apollo 15 descends to splashdown.jpg|The Apollo 15 spacecraft splashed down safely despite a parachute failure. (NASA) File:Splashdown 2.jpg|Apollo 15 splashdown (NASA) File:Splashdown 3.jpg|Apollo 11 after splashdown (NASA) File:Apollo 13 CM recovery to USS Iwo Jima (S70-15530).jpg|Apollo 13 hoisted onto ship (NASA) File:Gemini water egress training - GPN-2006-000029.jpg|Gemini water egress training File:Space X water3.JPG|Recovery of the Dragon C2+ on May 31, 2012 File:EFT-1 Orion recovery.2.jpg|Recovery of the EFT-1 Orion, December 5, 2014 File:SpaceX Demo-2 Landing (NHQ202008020015).jpg|Landing of SpaceX Demo-2, 2 August 2020 Artemis II Orion Underway Recovery Test 10 (URT-10) - Day 3 (KSC-20230727-PH KAA02-0017).jpg|Artemis II Orion capsule well dock Underway Recovery Test 10 (URT-10)

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See also

• Apollo program
• Apollo–Soyuz Test Project
• Helicopter 66
• Project Gemini
• Project Mercury
• Skylab
• SpaceX Dragon 1
• SpaceX Dragon 2
• Water landing
• Zond program

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Notes

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Bibliography

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External links

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